Northeast India, comprising the "Seven Sisters" states, is one of the most culturally diverse regions in the world, home to hundreds of distinct ethnic groups, languages, and religions. While this diversity is a source of pride and identity, it has also been a source of tension and conflict. Ethnic divisions and competing demands for resources, autonomy, and political recognition have long shaped the social and political landscape of the region. Manipur, one of these northeastern states, exemplifies both the beauty and complexity of this diversity, as well as the violent repercussions that sometimes arise when ethnic identities clash.
This article provides an overview of ethnic conflicts in the Northeast, with a specific focus on Manipur, exploring the historical roots of these tensions, notable instances of violence, and the ongoing efforts for peace and resolution.
The Northeast is home to a vast array of ethnic groups, including the Nagas, Mizos, Kukis, Manipuris (Meiteis), Assamese, and various tribes in Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura. Each of these groups possesses distinct languages, cultures, and social customs, often tied to specific geographic territories. These differences are not merely cultural but are often woven into the political and economic fabric of the region.
Since the British colonial period, these distinctions were highlighted and reinforced through policies that categorized people by ethnic and religious lines, sometimes resulting in the division of communities into administratively distinct entities. After India gained independence in 1947, these divisions led to demands for separate states and autonomous councils within the Indian union, with each group vying for political and economic space.
The socio-political diversity, while culturally rich, has also led to competition and conflict. The Indian government’s recognition of "Scheduled Tribes" created a hierarchy where certain groups received affirmative benefits while others were excluded, sowing seeds of division. Additionally, the Northeast’s geographical isolation, limited infrastructure, and perceived neglect from the central government exacerbated the sense of alienation among various ethnic groups.
Manipur, a state with deep historical roots and a unique cultural identity, is a microcosm of Northeast India's complex ethnic mosaic. The primary communities in Manipur include the Meiteis, the Nagas, and the Kukis, each with its own language, culture, and traditional lands. The Meiteis, who are primarily Hindu, inhabit the valley region and form the state's majority. Meanwhile, the hills surrounding the valley are home to various Naga and Kuki tribes, who are predominantly Christian. These groups have historically maintained a degree of autonomy from each other, both in social practices and territorial occupation.
Tensions between these groups have periodically erupted into violence, fueled by competition over resources, land ownership, and demands for political autonomy. The state's political structure, which allocates legislative representation and resources based on ethnic identity and geographic location, has often intensified these rivalries. While Manipur achieved statehood in 1972, demands for autonomy and ethnic self-governance have persisted, leading to ongoing conflict and political agitation.
The seeds of conflict in Manipur, as in much of the Northeast, can be traced back to British colonial policies. The British treated the hill and valley regions of Manipur as separate administrative units, reinforcing divisions that already existed. By introducing the concept of “excluded areas” and “partially excluded areas,” the British set the stage for differential treatment of ethnic groups. These policies continued to have an impact after independence, as communities sought to protect their traditional lands from encroachment by other groups or external authorities.
After India’s independence, many northeastern states, including Manipur, experienced a surge in insurgent movements. These movements often revolved around demands for secession, greater autonomy, or ethnic self-determination. In Manipur, both Naga and Kuki insurgent groups sought independence from India or the creation of separate homelands. This was also the period when the Naga insurgency gained momentum, with the Nagas demanding a "Greater Nagalim," which would include Naga-inhabited areas in Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. This demand has been a continual source of tension between the Naga and non-Naga communities in Manipur.
In the early 1990s, tensions between the Naga and Kuki tribes over land, political representation, and ethnic identity escalated into violent conflict. The Naga-Kuki conflict, which began in 1992, saw violent clashes between these communities, resulting in hundreds of deaths and displacement of thousands of people. This conflict was rooted in territorial disputes, as the Kukis opposed the Nagas' demand for a Greater Nagalim, which they saw as encroaching on their traditional lands. The violence also drew in different factions of insurgent groups, further complicating efforts for peace.
The fallout from this conflict is still felt today, as inter-ethnic distrust remains high in Manipur. Both communities continue to assert their territorial claims, leading to sporadic outbreaks of violence and ongoing challenges for the state government.
Another longstanding source of tension in Manipur is between the Meiteis, who predominantly live in the valley, and the tribal communities, who inhabit the hill areas. One key issue is the Meiteis’ demand for Scheduled Tribe status, which they argue is necessary for securing their rights and representation. Tribal communities, however, oppose this demand, fearing it would lead to competition for jobs and resources reserved for Scheduled Tribes and could allow Meiteis to purchase land in the hill areas.
This divide has been exacerbated by economic disparities, as the valley has historically received more infrastructure and development funding compared to the hills. Meitei and tribal groups have often clashed over these issues, with demands for political representation and resource allocation further fueling tensions.
In 2023, Manipur once again witnessed intense ethnic violence, primarily between the Meitei and Kuki communities. The conflict reportedly began over a court ruling granting Scheduled Tribe status to the Meiteis, sparking protests from the Kuki community. Tensions escalated rapidly, leading to violence, destruction of homes, and displacement of people. The conflict drew attention across India, with both communities accusing each other of land encroachment, violence, and marginalization.
This latest outbreak of violence highlighted the fragility of inter-ethnic relations in Manipur and underscored the need for effective conflict resolution mechanisms and government intervention to address longstanding grievances. Reports by organizations like the Human Rights Watch and statements from activists emphasized that unless the structural issues of representation, resource distribution, and ethnic inclusion are addressed, such conflicts are likely to recur.
The Indian government has made numerous attempts to negotiate peace in the Northeast, including the signing of accords and granting of autonomous councils to certain ethnic groups. In Manipur, the 1988 Kuki National Organization and the 1997 Naga Framework Agreement were significant attempts to pacify insurgent groups. These agreements provided greater autonomy to these communities while addressing some of their grievances. However, the implementation of these accords has often been slow, and tensions persist, particularly regarding land ownership and political representation.
The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) has been in force in Manipur since 1958, giving security forces sweeping powers in the name of counter-insurgency. While the government argues that AFSPA is necessary to maintain order, critics contend that it has led to human rights abuses and further alienated the population. Many believe that repealing or amending AFSPA could build trust and open the way for dialogue between ethnic communities and the government.
In recent years, civil society organizations, local leaders, and advocacy groups have initiated peace-building efforts focused on fostering inter-community dialogue and addressing common grievances. Educational programs, economic development initiatives, and legal reforms to address land disputes have shown potential to ease tensions. The government has also been working with local leaders to address resource distribution in a more equitable manner, with programs aimed at improving infrastructure in hill areas and valley regions alike.
The history of ethnic conflict in Manipur and the broader Northeast reflects deep-seated issues of political representation, cultural identity, and resource allocation. Achieving lasting peace will require a multi-faceted approach that addresses the root causes of these tensions. Solutions could include equitable economic development, recognition of ethnic rights, land reforms, and improved autonomy mechanisms for ethnic groups.
As the 2023 conflict demonstrated, unresolved grievances can quickly spiral into violence. However, with concerted government effort, effective policies, and grassroots peace-building initiatives, Manipur and other states in the Northeast can move toward a future where ethnic diversity is a source of strength rather than division. Fostering trust and addressing long-standing issues can pave the way for a more inclusive and harmonious society in the region.
